Structuralist and Modernist Theories of Development

Structuralist and Modernist Theories of Development This essay is going to look at the rather broad question which theory of development I find most persuasive. It will look at the different theories of development and then critically assess the theories to show that I believe Modernisation theory to be the most persuasive, using examples to back up my argument. To fully engage with the question the essay will start by looking at and assessing Modernisation theory, secondly the essay will look at a structuralist approach and how it differs to modernisation theory. The essay will then look at political development theory and the differences between the theories, before concluding to try and show that overall the most persuasive theory of development is Modernisation. After World War Two we saw a departure from Classical Economics and Growth Theory to Modernisation Theory. The Theory reflected both a changing international political circumstance and developments made in social science circles with the journal Economic Development and Cultural Change publishing the social scientists findings of their Modernisation research . Walt Rostow presented his thesis on Modernisation theory looking at it as a five-stage process, showing countries moving from traditional societies to modern societies, the last stage for Rostow being The age of high mass consumption' (Hopper, 2012), which is when a country maintains high economic growth for an appropriate length of time. It follows the general principles of the Modernisation theory that it is a linear process of changing older traditions, methods and structures that countries have previously followed. Rostow believed that a way for Developing countries to benefit from Modernisation was for aid from developed c ountries to be sent to these countries so that they could gain some productive investments. The Marshall plan and the Alliance for Progress in Latin America were programs that were influenced heavily by Rostows theory. The Alliance for Progress was established between America and Latin America to promote economic and political development within the countries (Ish-Shalom, 2004). The Alliance had a few successes, for example growth in regional output in Latin America increased by 0.4% per capita, however during the 1960s 13 of the governments within the alliance were taken over by a military dictatorship leading an abrupt failure of the alliance. By the end of the 1960s the theory of Modernisation was under attack, a main reason being because many believed that the theories linear view dismisses the extent to which societies can be very diverse and different to other countries, especially those in the west, as these countries may fight change and resist changing their traditions, as it is assumed by authors that Third World Countries are traditional whilst Western countries are developed. In his book, John Martinussen talks about how some Modernisation theorists assume that because the model has worked in developed countries it will automatically transfer to work in developing countries (Hopper, 2012). Similarly, these ideas of development hugely downplay the level to which international conditions could impede development in the South. Structuralists would argue that developing countries are powerless to control their own futures because modernisation theory was to focused upon endogenous factors that it overlooked external factors due to the international economic order.   Ã‚   Structuralists focused on the structure of the international economy to look for patterns of the level of development in countries around the world. The theory is influenced by Keynesian which is a critique of classical economics and talks about how states rely upon government intervention and having a mixed economy, and that to become developed states should focus on achieving this, as the belief was that it would stimulate the economy and development within the country. The belief relied heavily upon governments in developing countries encouraging industrialisation through support such as financial help. Therefore, like modernisation theory we can see that structuralism shares a belief in industrialisation in a countries development. Also, the structuralist approach is rooted in Latin American experience, where the countries were very critical of international trade and there were attempts to discover and explain the lack of development in the area. Raul Prebisch looked at the idea of there being a structural rift in the international economy (Edgar J. Dosman, 2012) in which Latin America sat on the edge of this rift as it had the function of being able to provide natural resources, mainly serving those countries in the centre. With assistance from Prebisch CEPAL developed a theory of economic development for Latin America. This approach was based upon the ideas that development should not be copied from Western countries but instead established so that it represents the reality within the developing country. It also believed that protectionist policies should be adopted, such as importing tariffs on imported goods, as without such policies these countries would struggle to survive in the international free trade market as they would be in direct competition with western countries. CEPAL concluded that development, in Latin America at least, needs to take place within a Capitalist system and that countries that produced industrial goods would grow faster than those which specialised in primary commodities. Some structuralists held that countries of the Global South could overcome the unintentional restraints put on them by the already developed countries through trading between themselves (Hopper, 2012). Therefore, Structuralists would advocate a policy of Import-substitution industrialisation (ISI) described by Valpy Fitzgerald as being state-led industrialization, when CAPEAL was formed the organisation continued to push ISI as it was dealing with the shocks felt within Latin America from the disruption of international trade because of the Great Depression through World War Two, and by the 1950s CEPAL wanted to create a region-wide market that would capture economies of scale in production. (Love, 2005). Manufacturing in Latin America increased yearly by 6.3% (Sheahan, cited in Hopper 2012), showing that this structuralist approach had a positive effect in this area of the Global South, however some manufacturing industries in countr ies with small domestic markets struggled as they had limited population size to market their goods too and were further limited by the populations low incomes, leading to reductions in foreign exchange earnings so these industries would struggle to afford the technology needed to manufacture their goods which ISI was reliant on to work. ISI also ignored bureaucracy and corruption that have been a part of the states and governments throughout the world. Overall there were too many faults with some structuralists ideas and Latin America abandoned ISI after the debt crisis in the region in 1982. After the slow dissolution of ISI in Latin America, with a worsening debt crisis and terms of trade for primary products deteriorating a new approach, Dependency Theory, began to come to light from radical and neo-Marxists who began with critiquing both Modernisation and Structuralist theories. Their general argument is that Capitalism in the international community produces increased inequalities in levels of development allowing the North to exploit and extract wealth from the South. Paul Baran, a Development academic, considered this structure as the morphology of backwardness. (Bellamy Foster, 2007). Within Latin America Andrà © Gunder Frank argued that the lack of development within these countries can be directly connected to development in other areas of the world, this is through looking at a Capitalist world system characterised by a centre-periphery dichotomy where Latin America sits on the periphery with the countries of the North in the centre, the result of this dichoto my being an unequal exchange in the international market with the North becoming developed and dominating and the South being underdeveloped and dependent. A conclusion from dependency theorists seemed to be that capitalism needs to be abolished if underdevelopment is the result of a capitalist society. However, a challenge to the theory emerged when newly industrialised countries could almost be seen to be bridging the gap in the dichotomy, Immanuel Wallerstein disagreed slightly with dependency theory and stated that the dichotomy had three levels; centre, semi-periphery and periphery, Wallerstein developed World-systems theory. This theory sought to explain the central-periphery dichotomy produced by the Capitalist system, Wallerstein offer a more fluid concept of the dichotomy saying that it is possible for countries to move in and out of these categories whether it be due to development or economic decline, this can account for the change in countries such as China and India (H opper, 2012). However, critics would argue that despite Wallersteins theory that Dependency theorists underplay internal and natural causes of underdevelopment. During the 1980s Latin America witnessed an economic crisis leaving the areas GDP growth rate as 1.1% whereas its overall growth rate of its per capita GDP was negative (Shixue, 2008). This was due to flaws from the ISI model and corruption within the region by officials. Also, many claim that the theory fails to provide answers to developing countries predicament, as the theory states that dependency is a root cause of their underdevelopment but provides no escape. There is either a need for developed countries to disconnect themselves from the international market or for a creation of a new international economic system. Therefore, Dependency theory provides little hope to developing countries. In conclusion when analysing the different theories of development it is apparent that all the three main theories can be recognised as having some influence within developing countries.

My Adventure in Greece :: Personal Narrative Place

My Adventure in Greece I topped the hill, and looked back down the narrow, winding street, winded. My grandparents were still straggling up. I told my uncle that we should wait for them, and he agreed, reluctantly. He was used to the steep slopes and uneven sidewalks of the Athenian back streets, and didn't quite realize that visitors found them more than a little challenging -- especially after exploring the Acropolis most of the day. I should have been tired; I'd been climbing all day, since around eight that morning, and we were just finishing the forty-five minute, up-hill-and-down-dale walk back to the American School of Archeology. Despite a nightly average of five hours of sleep over the last week or so, I felt like I could go on forever. There was so much to see and discover -- new things to try, ancient ones to visit -- and only a few more days of this amazing vacation left! My grandparents caught up, and we continued, leap-frog fashion, up the remaining streets to our destination. When we did reach my uncle's room in the American School, I had time to realize that I was more tired than I had wanted to admit. Why was it that I could do so much here, in Greece, when at home I'd be exhausted and begging to rest after finishing just half of the climbing that I was doing every day now? What was the difference? I refused to believe that the food, full of olive oil as it was, could change my stamina this drastically. Nor was it the hot climate. Still, here I was climbing forty-five grade -- and greater -- inclines in ninety degree heat when, under the same conditions in Wilkes-Barre, I would be hiding from high temperatures in the nice, cool basement and avoiding all activity. I thought back to the Acropolis and the view of Athens sprawled at my feet, of the great, symetrical Parthenon, and the graceful Keryatids of the Erectheon. I remembered the tiny temple of Isis on the desert-like island of Delos, and high, windy Ancient Thira on Santorini. Yes, seeing, visitin g, touching those ancient masterpeices was thrilling, but even walking down -- or up -- the dustiest, most winding street in Athens was a treasured experience in itself. But the streets in Athens were paved with asphalt just like the roads in Dallas or Exeter.

Mormon religion strengths and weakness Essay

The Mormon religion was initially recognized as Church of Jesus Christ and is a restoration of the earlier church that had been found by Jesus. According to the â€Å"facts† article, there are around 14 million Mormon followers and do meet in roughly 30, 000 congregations globally. It was established by Joseph Smith in the year 1830 in USA. It teaches that Christianity is apostate and actually God had raised Joseph Smith to be a prophet in order to restore Christianity. They believe that the use of the bible is not enough to reveal what we ought to know and believe that all the revelations that were discovered by Smith were scriptures. They base their system of religion on doctrines as well as covenant books. Mormonism does teach that there was a time that God was actually a man hence, man may one day become God. It is therefore imperative to have a limelight on the strengths and weakness of the Mormon religion. According to the â€Å"Mormon religion† article, one of the weaknesses in this religion is that most of Joseph’s prophesies never come to pass. Thus most people argue that he was not really a prophet of God. In 1891, Joseph alleged that before he attains 85 years, Jesus Christ would come back. He however did not reach the age of 85 since he got murdered in the year 1844. Jesus Christ did not return. He had false prophesies. For example, he prophesied in the year 1832, that the USA civil war, that the British would be involved and it would extend globally. He also prophesied on government’s demise at Missouri because he was displeased with the government but it never came to be. Smith just revealed on what a false prophet he really was. One of its strengths is that it appears good to people who have no idea of the scriptures. They have a well organized as well as large amounts of money for backing it. They hardly teach their weird beliefs until later when one gets baptized. The religion is weak as far as scripture base is concerned. The prospective Mormons are usually persuaded to worship God and ask if Mormon’s book is really true. They are encouraged by being told that the reply will come via burning sensation coming from their bosom. However, most of them do not even bother to have a look at this book. Mormons do not follow the scriptures of their book thus rendering the religion weak. Mormon religion promotes discrimination. It teaches that the beings which fought valiantly for God had come to the earth as the whites and those who did not fight were blacks. Therefore, for many years the blacks could not be appointed as priests in the Mormon religion and worship system (Michael, 2006). Joseph Smith believed that the Negroes were inferior in the society and also believed that if the black people would be treated in the same way as others they would prove to be more productive, intelligent and prosperous. This has led to so much controversy rendering the religion to be racist. The church also advocate for polygamy. Though they may have some strange doctrines they have some strengths too as far as the religion is concerned. Members of the Mormon religion are better than other religions as far as sustaining of the marriage culture is concerned (Maggie, 2007). They usually do this through participating successfully and fully in the modern life. Approximately 77% of teenagers aged between 13 and 17 condemn fornication and support sex only for the married people (Maggie, 2007). They believe that sex before marriage is wrong and its pleasurable if saved only for marriage. The Mormon members are unlikely to have children out of wedlock (Maggie, 2007). Also their other strength is that they believe in an evidentiary faith. They believe that people can go to God and receive some answers that they need and this essentially is the ground base of religion. The weakness in this base is that, if the followers do not succeed after praying, they end up leaving the church since most of them do it for evidence purposes. According to the â€Å"advantages of Mormonism’ article, the strength of Mormonism is that it is usually open as far as history and science is concerned as compared to the conservative evangelicalism. However, most of the vital elements of this religion are not proven scientifically and their book is hard to explain. Also the Mormon religion is so much centered scientifically thus does not solve most of the theological problems. When it comes to practical religions, Mormons are better than most. They have welfare system that takes care of their fellow colleagues and do practice fellowship. Their welfare system does focus mostly on social issues, health matters and issues to do with infrastructure. The Mormon Church has a weakness since it does not make it very easy for its members to finally leave the church (Richard, 2009). It usually knows better than the members know and usually protects one against them. This is a weakness since everybody has the freedom to worship. In the US and other democratic unions one is guaranteed the freedom of religion and association. Whether or not the Mormon is a religion that can be relied on or not, that is not the main issue. The main issue is that it has both flaws as well as strengths and it is up to the people to decide whether to be involved in it or not. Works Cited Advantages of Mormonism. Mormon metaphysics and theology. (2007). Retrieved 20, May, 2010

A Planet For the Taking essays

A Planet For the Taking essays "Problems facing us today are immense and many are direct consequence of science and technology," David Suzuki tells the world, but are we really at fault? Yes. The growing field of science and technology has given the world many benefits, but many downfalls as well. Some benefits include cures for diseases, and easier living conditions. On the other hand, downfalls include the endangerment of many species and destructions of ecosystems. The field of science and technology has been abused consiously and unconsiously to destroy species, ecosystems, and waterways and if drastic changes aren't made soon then we will be severly endangering ourselves. The past few generations of humans have unconsiously been destroying thier environments. Populations drive their cars, smoke their cigarettes, dump huge amounts of garbage in landfills instead of recycling most of it, and pollute the land in so many other ways. Suzuki mentions that the "Great Lakes, which contain 20% of [the] world's fresh water... is terribly polluted and the populations of fish completly muxedup by human activity," and even though humans are aware of the fact that they are destroying wildlife and ecosystems by abusing science and technology, they don't care enough to change their ways. The government is a prime example of abusing our environment with the use of science and technology. Instead of funding and supporting the public transit system, they fund highway and road expansions. If more funding was given to the TTC, then more of the population would be using the TTC and therfore help to cut down on pollution which destroys our surrounding environments. In rea lity, the government wants to make as much profit as possible and therefore more highways and freeways are built so that more cars can travel on them. The world's population will always unconsiously pollute the earth, and all because it lets them live their lives a little bit easier. ...

History and Geography of Puerto Rico

History and Geography of Puerto Rico Puerto Rico is the easternmost island of the Greater Antilles in the Caribbean Sea, approximately a thousand miles southeast of Florida and just east of the Dominican Republic and west of the U.S. Virgin Islands. The island is approximately 90 miles wide in an east-west direction and 30 miles wide between the north and south coasts. Larger Than Delaware and Rhode Island Puerto Rico is a territory of the United States but if it became a state, Puerto Ricos land area of 3,435 square miles (8,897 km2) would make it the 49th largest state (larger than Delaware and Rhode Island). The coasts of tropical Puerto Rico are flat but most of the interior is mountainous. The tallest mountain is in the center of the island, Cerro de Punta, which is 4,389 feet high (1338 meters). About eight percent of the land is arable for agriculture. Droughts and hurricanes are the major natural hazards. Four Million Puerto Ricans There are almost four million Puerto Ricans, which would make the island the 23rd most populous state (between Alabama and Kentucky). San Juan, Puerto Ricos capital, is located on the north side of the island. The islands population is quite dense, with about 1100 people per square mile (427 people per square kilometer). The Primary Language Is Spanish Spanish is the primary language on the island and for a short time earlier this decade, it was the commonwealths official language. While most Puerto Ricans speak some English, only about a quarter of the population is fully bilingual. The population is a mixture of Spanish, African, and indigenous heritage. About seven-eighths of Puerto Ricans are Roman Catholic and literacy is about 90%. The Arawakan people settled the island around the ninth century CE. In 1493, Christopher Columbus discovered the island and claimed it for Spain. Puerto Rico, which means rich port in Spanish, wasnt settled until 1508 when Ponce de Leon founded a town near present-day San Juan. Puerto Rico remained a Spanish colony for more than four centuries until the United States defeated Spain in the Spanish-American war in 1898 and occupied the island. The Economy Until the middle of the twentieth century, the island was one of the poorest in the Caribbean. In 1948 the U.S. government began Operation Bootstrap which infused millions of dollars into the Puerto Rican economy and made it one of the wealthiest. United States firms that are located in Puerto Rico receive tax incentives to encourage investments. Major exports include pharmaceuticals, electronics, apparel, sugarcane, and coffee. The U.S. is the major trading partner, 86% of exports are sent to the U.S. and 69% of imports come from the fifty states. United States Citizens Since 1917 Puerto Ricans have been citizens of the United States since a law was passed in 1917. Even though they are citizens, Puerto Ricans pay no federal income tax and they can not vote for president. Unrestricted U.S. migration of Puerto Ricans has made New York City the one place with the most Puerto Ricans anywhere in the world (over one million). Pursuing Statehood Through the U.S. Congress In 1967, 1993, and 1998 the citizens of the island voted to maintain the status quo. In November 2012, Puerto Ricans voted not to maintain the status quo and to pursue statehood through the U.S. Congress. 10-Year Transitional Process If Puerto Rico were to become the fifty-first state, the U.S. federal government and the state-to-be will establish a ten-year transitional process towards statehood. The federal government is expected to spend about three billion dollars annually in the state toward benefits not currently received by the Commonwealth. Puerto Ricans would also begin paying federal income tax and business would lose the special tax exemptions that are a major part of the economy. The new state would probably obtain six new voting members of the House of Representatives and of course, two Senators. The stars on the United States flag would change for the first time in more than fifty years. If independence were chosen by the citizens of Puerto Rico in the future, then the United States will assist the new country through a decade-long transition period. International recognition would come quickly for the new nation, which would have to develop its own defense and a new government. However, for now, Puerto Rico remains a territory of the United States, with all that such a relationship entails.

Academic Voice Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Academic Voice - Essay Example Hence, it is critical that each student's "academic voice" come across in their writings. Voice can be defined as the way in which an argument is presented, supported, evaluated and conclusions drawn from it for practical applications (Demetriou, Goalen & Rudduck, 2000). This begins with the way in which a topic is introduced, and then the structure of the student's interpretation of the topic and accompanying supportive data to justify their point of view. It is important to distinguish academic voice from paraphrasing and direct quoting of other authors, which is used as the evidence to support the writer's conclusions (Brearly, 2000). It is clear that academic voice is essential to the concept of analyzing other writer's non-fiction text. This paper will critically review the use of academic voice with regard to mature age students taking psychology courses. Firstly, academic voice will be more fully described. Secondly, how academic voice can be used will be outlined, with reference to mature aged psychology students. Finally, a conclusion shall synthesize the main points of the paper to demonstrate the important benefits of cultivating academic voice and the contributions of mature aged students to the discipline of psychology. Describing Academic Voice Voice can be classified into three general forms; 1) audible voice, as in how much a reader will "hear" the text; 2) dramatic voice, to determine what type of writer is implied by the text; and 3) one's own voice, which is the relationship of the text to the actual writer of the text (Eisner, 1998). It is evident that the written word is more likely to be heard when the writer's syntax, rhythms and word-choices are characteristic of their own speech patterns. Textual cues, for example, simple sentences that are not wordy, and those which communicate a sense of mental activity, will draw the reader's attention to the audibility of the material. A dramatic element of a text can be cultivated from the former audible voice. As to a writer's own voice, it is comprised of three key elements; there is a distinctive recognizable tone; the impression of actually "having a voice" or "having the authority to speak"; and the "authentic voice" which is the resonance or meaningful relationships b etween the text and the actual writer of the material, in contrast to the implied author (Demetriou et al., 2000). So that a writer who is aware of the persona or image of themselves that is projected in their writing will be able to practice promoting and muting this voice, depending on the context of their composition.In general, new writers who are inexperienced are not aware that they can create their own persona within their writings (Demetriou et al., 2000). Often, due to their lack of experience new writers will use an inappropriate voice, for example using lengthy sentences comprised of jingoism in an attempt to portray themselves as knowing more about a topic than what they actually do. Sometimes, their writings may be overly casual, which is usually completely inappropriate for academic writing, and subsequently their text is not taken seriously by the reader, and so respect and authority is not fostered by their compositions. By way of learning about academic voice a stud ent writer can develops an understanding of the different types of voice, becoming aware of their own voice and of techniques that can be used to change their voice.Undergraduate writers

How the Black Plague Changed Europe Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

How the Black Plague Changed Europe - Essay Example The aristocracy wealth was based on ownership of land. The death of millions of people due to the Black Plague, therefore, meant that there was an acute shortage of labour. The peasants were particularly affected by the Black Plague because of the poor conditions in which they were living; the poor conditions coupled with close quarters in which the peasants were living provided a conducive environment for the spread of the Black Plague (The Flow of History,n.p. Web.). The shortage of labour led to drastic reduction in agricultural produce. The reduction of agricultural produce was a real disaster in the economy of medieval Europe. Apart from reduced agricultural produce, the few available peasants/labourers started demanding higher wages because the demand of their services was very high (Herlihy, 8-9). This led to increase in the cost of production of agricultural products. This in turn led to inflation because the aristocrats had to sell their produce at higher prices because of the high cost of production. Another factor that led to the inflation of the economy was the prohibitive trade measures that were instituted by some monarchs, these measures made procurement of goods through trade quite difficult (Zapotoczny, 2-3). This meant that there was insufficient supply of goods in the market leading to inflation. The crumbling of the Agricultural sector in the 14th century Europe due to the Black Plague depleted the tax base of the European states. The medieval European states were therefore forced, as it were, by the economic constraints occasioned by the Black Plague to increase taxes. The increase in taxes exacerbated the already high inflation in medieval Europe. The Black plague therefore caused economic recession in the medieval Europe. The economic recession ultimately led to complete change of economic system in Europe from Feudalism to capitalism as we shall see later in this paper. The second